Information Management Systems

Data Management Systems Presentation Organizations settle on indispensable choices dependent on client data concerning their utilization and inclination designs. Logical investigations are additionally founded on the assortment of information whose examination brings the suitable data that can be deciphered to draw the required inferences.Advertising We will compose a custom contextual analysis test on Information Management Systems explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Nations settle on fundamental choices concerning imperative strategies that address social issues, for example, neediness. Henceforth, they need to gather and in this way investigate a lot of information. This circumstance features the requirement for a component for overseeing large information. One may bring up issues concerning the job that data the executives frameworks play in this assignment. Utilizing four insightful articles, this paper characterizes and talks about administration data frameworks. It likewise talks a bout the significance of such frameworks with regards to the need to deal with enormous information. Definition and Discussion of Information Management Systems Data alludes to crude realities that identify with a given marvel or issue. Data alludes to sorted out realities about a given marvel or issues. Such realities are introduced such that increases the value of the past information. Data the executives framework establishes PCs and other related instruments that help in information assortment and handling to create data. A case of data the executives is appeared in figure 1. Information is significant in settling on different vital choices for an association. Its assortment and capacity followed by examinations require the accessibility of data the executives apparatuses. To be sure, every association looks for vital designs for development as far as size and efficiency levels.Advertising Looking for contextual investigation on it? How about we check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Growth builds challenges in dealing with client and flexibly bind grumblings because of the enormous measure of information that requires examination and combination. Various associations send various kinds of data the board frameworks to deal with large information. At medium-sized associations, normal data the board frameworks incorporate choice emotionally supportive networks, exchange handling frameworks, and coordinated MIS frameworks. Figure 1: A case of the executives data framework Source: (Turban, 2008, p.300). Choice emotionally supportive networks encourage the creation of choices dependent on the examination of information and measurable projections. Exchange preparing frameworks profit a methods for gathering information, its stockpiling, change, and the cancelation of various exchanges. This kind of framework is maybe significant where huge information is sent in overseeing organisations’ operational frameworks that help its business.Advertising We will compose a custom contextual analysis test on Information Management Systems explicitly for you for just $16.05 $11/page Learn More Decision emotionally supportive networks make an open door for development of nature of the choices that are made by organisations’ chiefs as opposed to laying them off. Through exchange preparing frameworks, an association procures the ability to execute synchronous exchanges. Information that is gathered by the framework can be held in databases. Be that as it may, such information stores might not have the ability to deal with huge information that identifies with the whole client populace. The information can later be sent in report creation, including charging, reports for planning fabricating, wage reports, creation and deals outlines, stock reports, and check registers. Both choice emotionally supportive networks and exchange handling frameworks share regular difficulties that make them unsatisfactory f or addressing the requirements of associations that manage huge information. Their security comprises a major issue. For exchange preparing framework, the fittingness of the dealings is excessively reliant on the precision of the data that is put away in the databases. The choice emotionally supportive network is even more slow in assisting with showing up at solid choices, in spite of its constrained limit of information handling. Choice emotionally supportive networks communicate with human leaders. This test makes it fantastically superfluous for an association that creates a few terabytes of information on a restricted length, for example, Argonne National Laboratory (Wright, 2014, p.13). A case of data frameworks for overseeing large information effectively at an authoritative level is the incorporated data the executives framework. One of such frameworks is the Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) system.Advertising Searching for contextual analysis on it? We should check whether we can support you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Find out More In any case, progressively advanced frameworks are utilized for overseeing huge information in science look into establishments and web of a customisation approach for a data the executives framework Xiong and Geng (2014) attest that data the board frameworks can be sent in breaking down huge information to yield data that is essential for settling on significant arrangement choices in a given state. For example, the professional poor arrangements that were actualized in China prompted a decrease of destitution levels in 2010. They depended on examination of enormous information. As of now, salary conveyance contrasts among poor people and the rich individuals are ascending in China and Cambodia. To think of this finding, they broke down huge information utilizing the Gini coefficient and the Theil Index (Xiong Geng, 2014). Albeit large information is significant in settling on imperative choices upon its investigation, it carries with it a huge obligation. In a meeting with MIT Medi a Arts master, Alex â€Å"Sandy† Pentland states that associations don't claim information and that â€Å"without decides that characterize who does, customers will revolt, controllers will plunge down, and the enthusiasm of things won't arrive at its full potential† (Smith, 2014, p.101). This case implies that data ought to be benefited to all individuals, rather than being safeguarded inside an organisation’s premises so different associations and people don't share it or use it after its examination to settle on significant choices that can impact their lives and organizations. From this declaration, a rising inquiry is whether individuals ought to be given the opportunity to decide if their information ought to be gathered and put away in super memory PCs with the goal that all individuals who are keen on it can get to it and send their huge information data frameworks to yield their necessary data. Can individuals license others to spy them in the camouflag e of gathering information? Alex reacts to the above inquiry by guaranteeing that straightforwardness helps in making trust, which permits individuals to share their data openly. He takes note of that individuals are right now not informed that others are spying them to gather enormous information. This move damages their privileges similarly as they have the privilege of power over their bodies (Smith, 2014). Straightforwardness in information assortment is fantastically significant in guaranteeing that the data, which is gotten from it, is useful to an association. Alex demands that information, which is gathered and broke down through enormous information data the board frameworks, should finish the entire picture about a person. The information is significant when it is overseen from a focal spot with the goal that data from it can allow individuals to customize their lives as far as meds, access to money related administrations, and protection among different issues that are si gnificant for an individual’s living. Absence of straightforwardness in information assortment and capacity just acquaints difficulties with its security. In reality, numerous data the executives frameworks experience the ill effects of the difficulties of unapproved access to its frameworks. Absence of trust on an organisation’s data constrains individuals to hack into frameworks. Alex affirms how this move impacts contrarily all basic frameworks since it clears a route for catastrophes to emerge, including those that lead to the passing of blameless individuals (Smith, 2014). Considering the benefits of keeping up open data the executives framework, there emerge inquiries on how straightforwardness can be accomplished. Alex gives a case of the exit plan. The Open PDS programming, which was created by MIT specialists, grants individuals to access and view information held in companies’ databases and guarantees its protected sharing (Smith, 2014, p.103). This gi ves unwavering quality and reliability of the information held by the organizations with the goal that individuals are not temped to get to it in unbound manners prompting wrongdoings like reconnaissance. Truth be told, a portion of the significant characteristics of a major information data the executives framework are exactness, adaptability, unwavering quality obviousness and steadfastness. The need to deal with and oversee huge information securely is significant in varying backgrounds. Unwavering quality in current logical research incredibly relies upon the ability to introduce investigate discoveries mirroring an enormous example size. In fact, discoveries are progressively exact when the whole populace is examined. Before, contemplating populace was nearly difficulty because of confinement of the ability to gather and break down huge information. Present day innovative methodologies grant such an undertaking. In a World of regularly changing operational elements, progressive ly exact estimating of purchasers and general industry patterns is significant in creating arrangements that expands an organisations’ upper hand. In this way, age of enormous information is practically unavoidable. The instance of SLACK Laboratory proves the certainty of creating large information in current logical inquires about. With its dispatch being foreseen in 2020, the â€Å"the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) will highlight a 3.2-gigapixel camera catching ultra-high-goals pictures of the sky at regular intervals, consistently, for at any rate 10 years† (Wright, 2014, p.13). During this period, enormous information will be created. Be that as it may,

Death Penalty Essays (1052 words) - Capital Punishment, Penology

Capital punishment This sound rings through every single death row prisoner a thousand times each day; Be that as it may, would it be a good idea for it to? The death penalty is one of the most disputable themes among Americans today. Since each individual has there own sentiment on this point, either possibly in support, the inquiry consistently raised Is it ethically right. The quantity of issues with capital punishment are gigantic, extending from blamelessness to prejudice, and these issues will never be settled except if the demise punishment is nullified. The issues with the death penalty stem as far back as the custom itself. The quantity of event on why capital punishment is supremacist is uncountable. A 1990 report discharged by the national government's General Bookkeeping Office found an example of proof demonstrating racial incongruities in the charging, condemning and burden of capital punishment after the Furman choice. Professor David Baldus inspected condemning designs in Georgia in the 1970's. In the wake of evaluating more than 2,500 crime cases in that state, controlling for 230 non-racial components, he inferred that an individual blamed for killing a white was 4.3 occasions bound to be condemned to death than an individual blamed for executing a dark. The Stanford Law Review distributed a study that discovered comparative examples of racial dispair, in view of the race of the casualty, in Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma and Virginia. For instance, in Arkansas discoveries indicated that respondents for a situation including a white casualty are three-and-a-half times bound to be condemned to death; in Illinois, multiple times; in North Carolina, 4.4 occasions, and in Mississippi multiple times bound to be condemned to death than respondents indicted for killing blacks. There is additionally the issue of Capital Punishment being a hindrance. Be that as it may, does capital punishment truly dissuade wrongdoing? The demise entryway needs you to accept the response to that question is yes. But, truth be told, it is a resonating NO. Consider this...the US is the main Western country that despite everything permits capital punishment, and we likewise have one of the most elevated crime percentages. During the 1980s, capital punishment states found the middle value of a yearly pace of 7.5 criminal murders per 100,000, while abrogation states arrived at the midpoint of a pace of 7.4 per 100,000. That implies murder was in reality progressively regular in states that utilization capital punishment. Likewise consider this...in an across the nation study of police boss and sheriffs, the death penalty was positioned last as a method of lessening rough wrongdoing. Just twenty-six percent imagined that capital punishment altogether lessens the quantity of manslaughters. The hypothesis behind the prevention tenet is imperfect itself. Killers don't analyze hazard/reward graphs previously they murder somebody. Being a criminal is intrinsically irrational...life detainment should prevent a sound individual itself. In addition, no criminal carries out a wrongdoing if he accepts he will be gotten. The following issue that merits some perception is that of Capital discipline being monetarily right, which means will it spare the U.S. what's more, its citizens cash. Capital punishment isn't currently, nor has it ever been, a progressively efficient option in contrast to life detainment, said Spangenberg and Walsh in an article in the Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review. A concentrate by the NY State Defenders Association indicated that the expense of a capital preliminary alone is more than twofold the expense of life detainment. In Maryland, a correlation of capital preliminary expenses with and without capital punishment for the a long time 1979-1984 inferred that a capital punishment case costs around 42 percent in excess of a case bringing about a non-capital punishment, as per the US Government Accounting Office. In 1988 and 1989 the Kansas council casted a ballot against restoring capital punishment after it was educated that reintroduction would include a first-year cost of more than $11 million. Also, the Miami Herald revealed that Florida, with one of the country's biggest passing columns, has assessed that the genuine expense of every execution is roughly $3.2 million, or around multiple times the expense of an actual existence detainment sentence. The last issue that ought to be watched is that of guiltlessness. Are there truly blameless individuals waiting for capital punishment? In any event twenty-three individuals have been executed who didn't carry out the wrongdoing they were blamed for. What's more, that is just those that we know. What's more, here untruths an intrinsic threat of capital punishment...when we execute a blameless individual; the genuine executioner is still in the city, prepared to deceive another person. Be that as it may, when an honest individual is captured, he is regularly the driving explanation for additional examination, and on the off chance that he is executed, than the case stays shut for eternity. Or then again, in any event,

Microeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Microeconomics - Essay Example 2. Clarify the contrast between a private decent and an open decent. Why has there been an expansion in the quantity of open products delivered by governments? Open Goods will be merchandise that are non-rival and non-excludable, an incredible inverse of Private Goods (Experimental Economics Center). Open merchandise, being non-rival, implies that the peripheral utility spent by one purchaser doesn't constrain the minor utility that another customer will utilize. Private products, then again, are rival merchandise, which imply that if there are a sum of 10 pencils in the market and Consumer A uses 4 of those pencils, at that point the negligible utility delighted in by Consumer B is diminished to just 6 pencils. Open products are non-excludable; which fundamentally implies that one buyer doesn't obstruct buyers from utilizing the open great. This contrasts from private products in that should customers go through the flexibly of private merchandise, different buyers are prohibited fr om getting a charge out of the private great. In Economics, one of the reasons for Market Failure is open acceptable and the inclination of the purchasers to free-ride.

What Lay Behind the Horror of the Slave Trade free essay sample

What lay behind the loathsomeness of the slave exchange? So as to comprehend what lay behind the awfulness of the slave exchange you first need to know how the slave exchange functioned right off the bat the slave exchange was a merciless and awful activity it worked when one of the European pontoon went to the Atlantic sea they would go to the little towns from Africa, for example, Ghana and the Europeans would take weapons, fabric and liquor to Africa, exchange it for certain Africans to be their slaves also the European would take the captives to America at long last the Europeans would reclaim crude materials, for example, cotton, sugar, tobacco and coffee.There were individuals included legitimately and by implication. Right off the bat the slave exchange gazed of in Europe, there were numerous individuals engaged with Britain for instance there were individuals included legitimately in Britain, for example, vendors they were included in light of the fact that they needed to bri ng back sugar to Britain however they required a boat they did this to procure a benefit. We will compose a custom exposition test on What Lay Behind the Horror of the Slave Trade? or on the other hand any comparable subject explicitly for you Don't WasteYour Time Recruit WRITER Just 13.90/page Skippers and groups of a boat were included straightforwardly on the grounds that they would cruise their boat tot the Atlantic Ocean and the chief would explore and the team would do what the commander says they did this to procure compensation and have an occupation so they can o something. Their were individuals included by implication, for example, individuals who make the slave tastes, for example, spinners, weavers, dyers, smithies, carpenters, rope creators and banner producers these individuals were included in light of the fact that they made the pontoon for skippers and group to get it the vessel producers did this so they could acquire cash and a living.Another sort of individuals included in a roundabout way is individuals from all over Britain who went to ports, for example, Liverpool to support others like chiefs/teams these others like businesspeople are included on the grounds that they would move their shops to Liverpool r different ports like Liverpool to support in dividuals like commanders and teams and sell them stuff like lager they did this to gain compensation and the individuals who brought stuff from the retailers, they would need to pay for what ever they brought from the little businesses.People from all over Britain making great were included in a roundabout way they are included in light of the fact that bits of England like Sheffield make blades and knifes, to offer to individuals in Africa so they could get dark slaves, they are included on the grounds that they gives their products to Africa to get dark slaves, these are the sort of individuals who were included from all over Britain straightforwardly and in a roundabout way. Because of the considerable number of individuals who were straightforwardly of by implication included ports like Liverpool became greater for instance in the 1 700 the populace was 5,000, by 1800 the populace was 80,000 as a result of TTT slave exchange the populace grew a lot.Secondly their were individua ls who were engaged with the slave exchange from Affair for instance their were individuals who were at the shore of Africa, for example, white dealers they would exchange their merchandise, for example, firearms, material and liquor for slaves the brokers would exchange the made products to the African exchange hello are included in light of the fact that they speak to the vendors and they were alls win money.Another sort of individuals who were legitimately included were the African merchants they were included in light of the fact that they catch Africans from the little towns and from the assaults, they would likewise give the Africans they have caught from wars they would likewise need to walk the Africans they carried with them they did this for the great they got and for a benefit. Another caring individuals included were white mariners they were included in light of the fact that they would check, brand and whip the Africans to the little pontoons before going onto the gig vessels, they did this since they need to acquire a living and cash they were utilized by the vendors, their were individuals required from the trim, for example, lords and boss they were included on the grounds that they exchanges slaves for firearms, material and liquor they got the slaves from wars they did with other dad of Africa they did this since certain boss and rulers need their piece of Afar( to be rich and ground-breaking, a portion Of the head Of Africa did it to guard their PC of Africa.Finally there were customary individuals included they were included on the grounds that they were caught their were alto of talented individuals who were highlighted a portion of the little pieces of Africa lost its most expertise full individuals as a result of this the their were less rancher s to develop food, less metal forger to make things out of metal, less astute womens to give exhort and less carpenters to make stuff out of woods this shows since they were caught all the African the aptitudes were lost and nothing was left.Because of all the exchanging of weapons there were more wars in Africa then ever previously, additionally due to all the wars and strikes that has happened the land that were contradicted became squander land and a large number of individuals had kicked the bucket from the wars or were executed from assaults. At long last their were individuals who were associated with the slave exchange from the Americas for instance local Americans were included on the grounds that the Europeans assumed control over their chasing land they had no creatures to chase and EAI for food they retaliated however then the Europeans at that point utilized dark Africans their ranch and a portion of the local Americans took a shot at their plantations.Another sort of in dividuals included were the slaves on the estates they were included in light of the fact that 60% of field hands were ladies. Youngsters would begin to work at three years old. Their were group pioneers HTH would have more regard then different slaves the old individuals will sees work. They would labor for 16 hours every day they would accomplish the work the) were advised to do and they could purchase their opportunities at time.House slaves were included in light of the fact that they would need to accomplish work like serving the nourishments and in the event that you fled you would get an awful discipline they needed to accomplish the work that they were advised to do and they would need to endure their lords or special ladies mind-set swings, at long last another sort of individuals included were white individuals in the ranch the mater of the slaves would be on the manor a few times the over soothsayer would whip the dark Africans who didn't ho the bounce they were advised to do and the regulator would investigate the slaves on a pony so he can have an appropriate view to perceive what the slaves were doing and on the off chance that they were carrying out their responsibility this shows the supervisor would be paid for carrying out his responsibility, the bo sses of the estate proprietors required the captives to take a shot at his/hers ranch and the proprietor of the ranch proprietor would get cash from selling the entirety of his developed crops.Because of the slave exchange a portion of the Native Americans passed on from the sicknesses the Europeans brought back, starvation on the grounds that the Europeans assumed control over their chasing land and the Native Americans kicked the bucket from retaliating for their chasing grounds. What's more by saying this is the thing that lay behind the repulsions of the slave exchange it was entirely hopeless and baffling. Nobody ought to have been dealt with the manner in which the dark African slaves were dealt with. What's more, on the off chance that the triangular slave exchange didn't occur, at that point We would not have had the modern transformation and on the off chance that it wasnt for the dark African slaves who didn't develop tobacco cotton or sugar for us we would not have had it from this day on yet they ought not have been dealt with any contrastingly to the Europeans who brought the slaves.

How Pleasant Activity Scheduling Reduces Depression

How Pleasant Activity Scheduling Reduces Depression Depression Treatment Print How Pleasant Activity Scheduling Helps Reduce Depression Increasing your activity level is good for your mood. By Amy Morin, LCSW facebook twitter instagram Amy Morin, LCSW, is a psychotherapist, author of the bestselling book 13 Things Mentally Strong People Dont Do, and a highly sought-after speaker. Learn about our editorial policy Amy Morin, LCSW Updated on February 04, 2020 AzmanJaka / E+ / Getty Images More in Depression Treatment Medication Causes Symptoms Diagnosis Types Childhood Depression Suicide In This Article Table of Contents Expand How It Works Research Examples View All Back To Top Pleasant activity scheduling, which is also referred to as behavioral activation, is a therapy technique that is often used to treat individuals with mental health conditions such as depression. It involves scheduling and participating in positive events that are meant to boost an individual’s mood. Pleasant activity scheduling is recognized as an evidence-based treatment that is effective in reducing a variety of mental health symptoms. How It Works Individuals who are experiencing depression often isolate themselves. They may stop engaging in activities they previously enjoyed, and they may decline social invitations. Withdrawing from activities may increase their depression. Their symptoms may last longer and become more intense which may increase their tendency to isolate themselves even more. Do You Know the Signs of Clinical Depression? To help break out of this cycle, a therapist may assist a client in identifying an activity that might boost their mood. Eating dinner with a friend, going to the gym, or playing a round of golf might help someone feel better. But therapists don’t just assist clients in picking a random fun activity. Instead, they help clients identify their values. They rank how important specific values are to them such as work, education, volunteering, intimacy, family, friendship, spirituality, entertainment, and health. Then, the therapist assists in gathering concrete activities that support these values. Someone who values friendship, for example, might enjoy having coffee or watching movies with a friend. Once concrete activities are identified, the therapist encourages the client to schedule some of these activities that are important to their values. Next, they review the results with the therapist and determine a course of further action. Clients who found the activity helpful in boosting their moods may continue scheduling it. Those who didn’t find the activity helpful may work with the therapist on finding other ones that may boost their moods. Scheduling a pleasant activity may help in two different ways: The act of scheduling an activity may give the individual something to look forward to. As soon as they make plans, they may experience a boost in mood.Then, when they engage in the activity, they’re likely to experience an even brighter mood which can help them break out of a downward spiral. Research Pleasant activity scheduling has been around since the 1970s. Initially, it was incorporated into cognitive behavioral therapy. Cognitive behavior therapists assist individuals in replacing the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that contribute to distress. So while an individual may be learning how to reframe thoughts that fuel their depression, they might also be learning how to increase their activity level. But research indicates that pleasant activity scheduling can be an effective stand-alone intervention. In fact, some individuals with severe depression may struggle to replace irrational thoughtsâ€"which is a key component in cognitive behavioral therapy. Additionally, addressing their unhealthy thoughts may actually increase their feelings of guilt (a common symptom of depression). Therefore, pleasant activity scheduling may be an even more effective way to improve mood when it’s used as a standalone intervention for depression. Here are some other things research reveals about pleasant activity scheduling: It’s effective in group settings. A 2019 study?? published in Behavioral Therapy concluded that “behavioral activation delivered in groups produces a moderate to large effect on depressive symptoms and should be considered an appropriate front-line treatment option.”It may be helpful in treating addiction. A 2020 study?? published in Addictive Behaviors found that behavioral activation reduced the relapse rate in individuals who quit smoking since depression is often a factor that makes quitting difficult. Pleasant activity scheduling was effective in decreasing depressive symptoms while also increasing the chances that individuals would successfully stop smoking.It may be more effective than other types of treatment for certain individuals. Individuals with lifelong depression, substance abuse issues, dementia, and severe depression may not respond well to the cognitive components of cognitive behavioral therapy. A 2009 study?? published in Behavior Modification found that the se same individuals may experience relief from their symptoms when they engage in pleasant activity scheduling. The study also found that it may be superior to paroxetine in treating depression, because it results in less relapse and recurrence, may be substantially cheaper, and does not have the risks associated with medication. The overwhelmingly positive studies on pleasant activity scheduling have helped make it an evidenced-based treatment. It’s used by many practitioners who are looking to improve the mental health of their clients. Examples Pleasant activity scheduling is completely custom to each client. While the therapist assists the client in identifying the activities they want to engage in, it’s up to the client to make the decisions on what they want to do and when they want to do it. Here are a few examples of how pleasant activity scheduling may be used in treatment: A man developed depression after being laid off from his job. He spent his days at home watching TV and had little social interaction. His therapist helped him identify ways to increase his social interactions. He agreed to locate and attend one networking event each week. He also began meeting with a family member for coffee every morning. Increasing his social activity helped him feel happier and more hopeful about the future.A woman experienced depression for many years. She struggled with low energy, and consequently she stopped going to the gym even though her health was important to her. She worked with her therapist on identifying some activities she was willing to try like going on a hike with friends. She scheduled one activity per week for a month and found that her mood slowly began to improve.A college student reported feeling depressed during his first year of college. His therapist discovered that he spent a lot of time in his dorm room alone. The therapist asked about activities he used to enjoy doing and discovered that he was very involved in his church when he was in high school. The client agreed to attend local church services. After several weeks of participating, he found that his mood gradually became better.A manager was given permission to work remotely. Initially, she liked the flexibility of working from home. But within a few months, she grew depressed. Her therapist helped her identify activities that could help her feel connected to the outside world. She began walking every morning, working from a coffee shop two afternoons per week, and attending the gym three evenings per week. Her symptoms of depression decreased as her social engagement increased. A Word From Verywell If you notice some mild symptoms of depression, you might find adding some pleasant activities to your regular routine helps you manage your symptoms. If, however, you’re struggling to feel better on you own, talk to your physician. A doctor may refer you to a therapist. And you might find a therapist who encourages behavioral activation to be quite helpful in boosting your mood and helping you feel better.   Types of Therapy for Depression

Trade Unions in Singapore - Free Essay Example

Trade union is a labor union of craftspeople or workers in related crafts, as distinguished from general workers or a union including all workers in an industry (Dictionary. com 2010). It is a de facto of the government, and they as often act as government representatives to workers’ trade union. It compromises those who are not part of the elite society. (Michael D. Barr, 2000, page 480). In this essay, I will first discuss the characteristics of trade union in Singapore which will include a brief history. I will also give my opinion of Michael D. Barr’s article if Singapore is a trade union. Secondly, I will continue my writing with the characteristic of trade union in China including a brief history, and my opinion of Taylor and Qi Li’s articles if china is a trade union. Lastly, I will conclude the essay by comparing and contrasting these two trade unions. Trade Union in Singapore In 1961, the non-communist party National Trades Union Congress (NTUC), bein g the sole union movement in Singapore, was formed. As NTUC and People’s Action Party (PAP) (government) shares common goals, it worked closely with the PAP, forming a system, the tripartite system which was well established. This is a system whereby PAP government, employers and employees work together for the benefit of all parties (Michael D. Barr, 2000, page 480). NTUC as the National Federation of trade unions made up of working people in the industrial, service and public sectors consisting of 60 affiliated unions and 6 taxi associations. Today, the NTUC has 540,000 members. 9 cooperatives and 6 related organizations that are founded to serve the needs of its members. After reading the article (Trade Unions in an Elitist Society: The Singapore Society), I agree with the journalist, Michael D. Barr’s opinion that Singapore is not a trade union. Firstly, in accordance to the definition stated, trade union comprise of those who are not in the elite group. Howe ver, some of the NTUC union leaders are members of the government. For instance, the current Secretary General of the NTUC is a also a PAP member of Parliament, a Minister without portfolio working in the Prime Minister office, and the chairman or deputy chairman of several government bodies (Singapore Government Directory, 2000)’. Secondly, Secretary General of NTUC’s senior official, Lim Chee Onn, proclaimed that both the PAP and NTUC â€Å"came from the same mother the struggles with the communist and the colonists† (The Sunday Times, 1982). Although he claimed that the NTUC and the government had common goals, the NTUC is just like a â€Å"vehicle of government policy†. Barr’s article also pointed out that in the 1960s the NTUC was formed ‘so that’ the government was able to fight against with the communist parties to maintain a democratic society (non- communist) in Singapore. Thirdly, Trade Union leaders are appointed by u nion members, but NTUC was being controlled by the government. In 1982, with 91 percent of union votes, Lim Chee Onn was re-elected as Secretary General. But after 11 month of re-election, Singapore Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew wrote a letter to him. This was an inform letter, that Lim would have to leave the NTUC and take charge of a Government Ministry and other member, Ong Teng Cheong, a member of parliament (MP) would take over his position as Secretary General (NTUC). This shows that the NTUC was being control by the government to appoint the members to be in its organizational structure. The government has an authority to reject or accept members to lead the Trade Union. In addition, at the time of appointment as Secretary General in NTUC, Ong Teng Cheong was already a chairman of the PAP, and a former minister of Ministry of labor in the government sector. Fourthly, many important decisions are being made by the government. One of the most significant events is the indus trial relations event in the 1970s. Lee Kuan Yew took up the decision to modernize the trade union movement to enable it to meet the demands of Singapore’s attempt to move out of low-cost, low skill labor market and into the medium cost medium skill market (Jonathan Rigg, 1988). The NTUC did not stand up to object or give ideas to the decision. According to Caraway, East Asias labor laws offer similar levels of protection for individual labor rights to the rest of the world when firing costs are taken into account, and low regional averages are primarily an effect of Singapores extremely weak individual labor rights’(Caraway, 2009). For example, recession hit Singapore in 1985, the union movement ‘agreed’ to have a pay cut of 15%. The government may be the one who suggested it, and employee had no right to disagree with the act. Lastly, trade unions are supposed to be able to insist on having strikes or to fight to achieve goals but it is unlikely to happen in Singapore as the government has a law against that. However, to pre-empt labor disquiet and disinvestment, the governments offer credible apologies that include punishment and monitoring of government when economic performance is less than optimal in the country. When they fail to offer credible apologies, labor and producers respond with strikes and disinvestment. (O Fiona Yap, 2003). In addition, According to Law Society of Singapore official website, under Penal Code (Singapore, 2005) Chapter VIII: Offences against the public tranquility, rioting (S146 and S147) if you are part of an unlawful assembly and force or violence is used, every member is guilty of the offence of rioting even if the degree of participation of each of you is different. You can be jailed up to 5 years and can also be ordered to be caned. With all the evidence shown, I agree with Michael D. Barr that Singapore trade union is not a trade union. It does not fulfill many of the characteristics of a trade union. In my opinion, the NTUC is more like a government sector that fulfill employee needs of learning and development so as to increase their employability. Trade Union in China Unlike NTUC, trade union in China the All China Federation of Trade Union (ACFTU) is a communist party. The ACFTU was established in 1925, being the only recognized union in People’s Republic of China (PRC). According to the ACFTU’s official website figures released at the end of September 2006, there are 31 provincial trade union federations, 10 national industrial unions and 1. 324 million grassroots trade union organizations (in 2. 53 million enterprises and institutions) associated with the ACFTU. While protecting the overall interests of the people, the ACFTU aim to stand up for workers, protect workers interests, fulfill their social functions of protection, construction, participation and education in an all-rounded manner, give prominence to the protective function of trad e unions, and unite with and mobilize the masses of workers to strive for the realization of the countrys socialist modernization (All-China Federation of Trade Unions Official English website, 2007). Today, as China has increasingly economic power, ACFTU is working very hard to keep up with its trade unions power. After reading the article (Is the ACFTU a Union and Does It Matter? ), I agree with Taylor Li’s opinion that China is not officially a Trade Union. Firstly, I will start with the relationship between ACFTU and Chinese Communist Party (CCP). CCP is a party that has authority to control the government. ACFTU as a part of the government is also controlled by the party. Therefore, it means that ACFTU not only serves the government in government interest, but in its role in serving the interest of the CCP so as to aid in managing government matters (Taylor and Li, 2007, page 707). In other words, ACFTU is working closely together with government instead of by its elf. Secondly, Union leaders in ACFTU can be from the elite group of the society with many positions. For example at the Ninth Trade Congress, held in October 1978, a member of the CCP’s Politburo, Ni Zhi fu, became chairman of the ACFTU (Feng Cheng, 2009, page 668). The CCP and the government have the right to reject or accept a union leader. This shows that union leaders are being appointed instead of elected. Thirdly, as the ACFTU is the sole movement of trade union in China (with no other opposition party), employees are lacking the power to fight for their rights. As many finances in the union are sponsored by the government, if any party of the union were to go against the government, the CCP and the government have the right to remove its sponsorship from any department. For example, if any one of the union member is to go against the government decision, CCP or the government can remove their sponsorship. This will affect ACFTU directly, as they will not have en ough money to pay its workers and to continue its operations. Therefore, the reason the workers do not turn to the union is not ideological distaste, but is simply because the unions are generally incompetent or incapable of acting on the workers’ behalf (Taylor and Li, 2007, pg 709). Lastly, being the one and only large organization, the ACFTU is characterized as a bureaucratic union, with highly focus group of authority, and incumbent problems of inflexibility, accountability and performance (Taylor and Li, 2007, page 703). Although China’s union has a vertical organizational structure paralleling that of the party and government, the ACFTU is far less able than the party and government to exercise authority over its grassroots organizational cells—in fact, they are subject to the complete control of management. The union, thus, has administrative power but no effective enforcement units. (Feng Cheng, 2009, Pg 664). For example, if there is any conflict amo ng the subordinate and the superior, union bureaucracies acted as a middle man between protesting partied. They will have to accept the ‘mediate’ of the union bureaucracy as it sort of a government ‘command’. With all the supporting evidences, I agree with the point that China is not really a trade union. Different from Singapore, China trade union work closely together to promote both workers and the government interest. Overview In comparison, both Singapore and China trade unions are ‘not really a trade union’ as the unions operates with the aid of the government. They have many factors in common. Firstly, the two unions are trying to promote employees interest in their countries and both are the only union in their countries respectively. Secondly, the union leaders of the 2 countries are mostly from the elite group. In addition, union leaders are being elected by the government instead of being appointed by the union members. However , there are differences between the 2 unions. First, Singapore’s trade union the NTUC is a non-communist party but in China, the ACFTU is a pro-communist party. The working structure of the 2 unions is different too. NTUC is a parallel organizational structure but the ACFTU works in a vertical organizational structure. In conclusion, although these 2 trade unions do not fulfill the requirement(s) of a trade union, it works to a common of giving the employees in all industry a helping hand. Today, both trade unions are improving themselves to maintain a peace working environment in their countries. (Word count 1989) References †¢ All China Federation of Trade Union official English webpage on https://english. acftu. org sighted on 15 October 2003 Hits: 2465 and on  20 September 2007 Hits: 4841 Barr, M 2000, ‘Trade unions in an elitist society: The Singapore story’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, vol. 46, no. 4, pp. 480-96. †¢ Caraway, J ournal of East Asian Studies [1598-2408], Labor rights in East Asia: Progress or regress? , Vol: 9 Issue:2 pg: 153 -186, 2009 United States †¢ Feng Chen, ‘Union Power in China Source, Operation, and Constraints’, Modern China, 2009 pg 664 †¢ Dictionary. com Unabridged on https://dictionary. reference. com/browse/trade+union based on the Random House Dictionary,  © Random House, Inc. 2010. †¢ Jonathan Rigg, ‘Singapore and Recession in 1895’, Asian Survey, 28, 3, 1988, page 342 and 343 O Fiona Yap Non-electoral responsiveness mechanisms: Evidence from the Asian less democratic newly industrializing countries  (British Journal of Political Science; Jul 2003; 33, ABI/INFORM Global page 491) †¢ Singapore Government Directory interactive on https://ferari. nmi. net. sg/ sighted on 10 May 2000 †¢ The Singapore Law Society Directory interactive on https://www. lawsociety. org. sg/public/you_and_the_law/youthcrime/cp_public0. htm sighted on 2005 †¢ Taylor, B Qi Li, 2007, ‘Is the ACFTU a union and does it matter? ’, Journal of Industrial Relations, vol. 49, no. 5, pp. 701-15. †¢ The Sunday Times [Singapore], 2 May 1982

Methods to Conserve Energy - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 1 Words: 371 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/09/24 Category Advertising Essay Type Narrative essay Tags: Energy Essay Did you like this example? Using natural energy resources doesnt necessarily mean you will conserve any energy, yet we do advise every household to research the possibility of implementing natural energy resources to influence their home power supply. This will conserve the fossil fuels we are currently consuming at an alarming rate. Many little things can be done in an attempt to conserve energy in the home. It is knowing how to do these little energy conservation processes that many people do not know about, understand, or just dont care. Another way relating to how we can conserve energy is to ensure whenever we have finished using appliances that may have a light on them (such as a standby light), we switch the appliance off, or unplug after use. Little things can make a big difference in conserving energy around the home, and this is especially true for dishwashers, washing machines and dryers. Modern dishwashers have energy saving wash cycles, we strongly advise the use of such features, wa shing machines can be set to lower temperature washes, when used with the right washing powder, and a dryer, well if you own a dryer, get rid of it and dry your washing naturally on a washing line. Hybrid cars can make a difference to your carbon footprint, and can help you save energy. No, they will not eliminate carbon emissions from their exhausts, yet they will greatly reduce the amount of carbon you pump into the air each year. The only reason you should need a 44 vehicle is if you live in a rough terrain area, or constantly snowy area. When you choose your next car, be sure to check the miles per gallon to see how efficient your car will be, this not only helps the environment but it saves you money on fuel too. When conserving energy, we can also look to our heating methods, why not reduce your heating thermostat or radiators by only 1 degree for a lengthy time, and compare your heating bill? If you recycle more, you will be helping to conserve energy put into making new v ersions of what you have recycled, and this also reduces the burden on landfill sites and incinerators which are not good for the environment Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Methods to Conserve Energy" essay for you Create order

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Peter Nielsen Designing a New Molecule of Life - 576 Words

Peter Nielsen: Designing A New Molecule of Life Life as we know it is far more complex than one can imagine. The smallest molecule in the human body can play a large role in determining the genetic outcome or the overall well being of a person. In Peter Nielsen’s â€Å"Designing a New Molecule of Life†, he speaks of a molecule that hopefully one day will create a scientific and medical breakthrough. In this essay you will read a summary of Peter Nielsen’s article and the research he has done with this molecule. Peter Nielson, along with many other scientists, have spent years creating and experimenting with a synthetic molecule called peptide nucleic acid (PNA). PNA is an artificial polymer that has many similarities to deoxyribonucleic†¦show more content†¦Instead, a PNA strand invaded the DNA helix , displacing one of the DNA strands to form a bond with its (PNA) complement, and the second PNA strand formed what is called a Hoogsteen bonds PNA-DNA= PNA triplex. This created a triple invasion of the DNA helix. Other bonding methods were experimented where the PNA’s bases where modified according to the targeted DNA. Fortunately this method had better results though there are a lot more things to overcome. In making PNA a prospect for drugs, researchers have demonstrated proof of concept for using PNA oligomers to activated or suppress the transcription, replication, or repair of specific genes by binding DNA is various ways. PNA oligomers and conventional nucleic acids have the same problem of poor bioavailability because they are large water loving molecules making it difficult for them to enter cells. The productions of PNA based drugs awaits the development of suitable chemical modifications or pharmaceutical formulations to improve PNA bioavailability. Researchers believe this is the only thing holding back this medical breakthrough. In Nielsen’s article â€Å"Designing a New Molecule of Life†, he goes into detail of the many factors PNA will offer in the future. PNA can create a breakthrough drug, or may even create artificial life one day. Scientists say the PNA has many similarities as the molecules that have been thought to be the beginning of life. Though theShow MoreRelatedDeveloping Management Skills404131 Words   |  1617 Pagesorder to succeed. Visit www.mymanagementlab.com to learn more. DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT SKILLS EIGHTH EDITION David A. Whetten BRIGHAM YOUNG UNIVERSITY Kim S. Cameron UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN Prentice Hall Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montreal Toronto Delhi Mexico City Sao Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo Editorial Director: Sally Yagan Editor in Chief: Eric SvendsenRead MoreLogical Reasoning189930 Words   |  760 Pages............................................................................................. 420 Statistical Significance ................................................................................................................... 422 Designing a Paired Comparison Test .......................................................................................... 424 Obstacles to Collecting Reliable Data.......................................................................................Read MoreExploring Corporate Strategy - Case164366 Words   |  658 Pagesbe used. Some cases are written entirely from published sources but most have been prepared in cooperation with and approval of the management of the organisation concerned. Case studies can never fully capture the richness and complexity of real-life management situations and we would also encourage readers and tutors to take every possible opportunity to explore the live strategic issues of organisations – both their own and others. The following brief points of guidance should prove useful in

The Wave Of The Civil War Essay - 1322 Words

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Research Methods Free Essays

string(36) " setting of the research questions\." NOTES BASED ON RESEARCH METHODOLOGY BY WELMAN, KRUGER AND MITCHELL, 3RD EDITION. THE AIMS OF RESEARCH ? ? Research is a process that involves obtaining scientific knowledge by means of various objective methods and procedures. The term objective indicates that these methods and procedures do not rely on personal feelings or opinions and that the specific methods are used at each stage of the research process. We will write a custom essay sample on Research Methods or any similar topic only for you Order Now These methods include procedures for drawing samples (e. g. simple random sampling), measuring variables, collecting information and analysing the information. Research methodology considers and explains the logic behind research methods and techniques. ? ? Sources of non – scientific knowledge ? ? The sources include authority, opinion of peers, traditions, debating and accidental observation. Under authority, non – scientific knowledge is often merely accepted on the basis of the authority of some or other source. In contrast, with scientific approach, one should check the way in which findings are acquired and not accept them merely because they originate from a so – called expert. Non –scientific knowledge can also be acquired by asking the opinion of peers. Traditions refer to knowledge which is carried over from one generation to the next. Under debating, people attempt to obtain knowledge and insight by arguing in a seemingly logical manner. Accidental observation – this is where we notice something happening in one situation, but do not investigate the phenomenon in a systematic and planned manner ? ? ? ? Core features of scientific knowledge ? ? ? ? They include systematic observation, control and replication. Systematic observation – scientific approach requires that we plan an investigation in which we use the results of two groups that have applied the methods. Control – scientific knowledge can be obtained in a controlled manner. Control means that alternative explanations for the obtained results should be eliminated systematically. Replication – it must be possible to replicate the research results. It means that similar results should be obtained by other researchers including other research participants in other circumstances. 1 Quantitative and Qualitative Research Cycles ? Qualitative implies an emphasis on processes and meanings that are not rigorously examined or measured (if measured at all) in terms of quantity, amount, intensity or frequencies. The aims of qualitative research are to establish the socially constructed nature of reality, to stress the relationship between the researcher and the object of study, as well as to emphasize the value – laden nature of the inquiry. Quantitative research methods do not involve the investigation of processes but emphasize the measurement and analysis of casual relationships between variables within a value – free context. ? Differences between quantitative and qualitative research 1. The purpose of quantitative research is to evaluate objective data consisting of numbers while qualitative research deals with subjective data that are produced by the minds of respondents or interviewees. 2. Quantitative researchers use a process of analysis that is based on complex structured methods to confirm or disapprove hypothesis. Flexibility is limited to prevent any form of bias in presenting the results. In contrast, qualitative research is based on flexible and explorative methods because it enables the researcher to change the data progressively so that a deeper understanding of what is being investigated can be achieved. 3. Quantitative researchers try to understand the facts of a research investigation from an outsider’s perspective. Qualitative researchers try to achieve an insider’s view by talking to subjects or observing their behaviour in a subjective way. 4. Quantitative researchers try to keep the research process as stable as possible. They focus on the causal aspects of behaviour and the collection of facts that wouldn’t change easily. Qualitative researchers work with the dynamic and changeable nature of reality. 5. Quantitative researchers control the investigation and structure of the research situation in order to identify and isolate variables. Specific measurement instruments are used to collect data. The approach is particularistic. Qualitative researchers make use of a holistic approach, i. e. , they collect a wide array of data, e. g. , documents, records, photos, observations, interviews and case studies. In conclusion, the purpose of both quantitative and qualitative research is to try and understand the subject’s point of view. Quantitative researchers do it by means of controlling the situation and using remote empirical and inferential methods. Qualitative researchers, on the other hand, use unstructured interviewing and detailed observation processes to gain better information about the views of the subject. 2 THE RESEARCH TOPIC, PROJECT TITLE AND RESEARCH PROBLEM The research process This involves: ? ? ? ? ? ? Identifying research topic. Defining research problem. Determining how to conduct the study Collecting the research data. Analysing and interpreting the research data. Writing the report. Identifying research topic ? ? ? ? ? First source of ideas is your own experience and reflection of things around you. Become more aware of current events by keeping up to date with media coverage of worthwhile and interesting phenomena. Become more critical of different viewpoints when they are aired and defended by people in your immediate environment. Read more literature. Listen critically to what people around you are talking about. What are the current issues in the political, social, economic, environmental and other areas. Guidelines for the selection of a research topic ? ? ? Select a topic that is relevant to your own short-term and medium-term career prospects, whether it be a career in research or any other profession. Select a topic that you find intellectually stimulating and that you are convinced will sustain your interest for a number of years. Select a topic that is researchable in the sense that you will be able not only to merely complete it with the available resources, but also complete it at a level of scholarship that is scientifically acceptable. Select a topic that you find interesting and worthwhile. Then read more about it and focus more narrowly, delineating it into a more specific topic. ? Defining the research problem ? ? ? ? This involves narrowing down our general interests in a research topic in order to focus on a particular research problem which is small enough to be investigated. This process leads to the setting of the research questions. You read "Research Methods" in category "Essay examples" In academic research, the classic way to identify a research problem is to consider the literature and identify any gaps. These gaps indicate original areas to research. 3 ? ? ? ? ? A research problem refers to some difficulty that the researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and to which he/she wants to obtain a solution. To define a problem correctly, the researcher must know what a problem is. To answer a research problem, the researcher must be able to answer the following questions: o What is the problem? o What is the best way to solve the problem? A useful strategy that can be used to identify the research problem involves asking questions. Good questions have the following characteristics: o They express relationship(s) between two or more variables. They are clear, i. e. , what is asked is understood. o Implicit in each research question (research problem) is the view that some variables are the causes of other variables. o The independent variable (X) is that factor which the researcher selects and manipulates in order to determine its effect on the observed phenomenon. o The variable is independent because t he researcher is interested in how it affects the other variables being studied. o The dependent variable (Y) is that factor which the researcher observes and measures to determine how it was affected by the independent variable. The origin of research problems Typical sources of research problems include: ? ? ? Practical problems – caused by political, social and economical changes. Previous research – from other studies where there are shortcomings or contradictions. Theories – should associate a research project with a specific theory. A theory is a statement or a collection of statements that specify the relationships between variables with a view to explaining phenomena. The purpose of research ? ? ? To describe how things are, i. e. , define the nature of the study object. To explain how things are the way they are. Could it be because one thing caused another? To predict phenomena. Research hypothesis ? A hypothesis is a statement or proposition that can be tested by reference to the empirical study. Example, a research question may be: What is the relationship between advertising expenditure and income? 4 A hypothesis dealing with the same question is: There is a positive relationship between advertising expenditure and income. ? ? ? A research question differs from a hypothesis in that the research question is always expressed as a question, while a hypothesis is expressed as a statement. Hypothesis can either be directional or non-directional. Non-directional hypothesis do not predict the direction of the difference or relationship. o There is a difference between the organisational commitment of male and female employees. o There is a relationship between job satisfaction and salary level. Directional hypothesis are used if the researcher is more confident about the direction of the difference or relationship, or if the literature reports that previous studies found differences to be in a particular direction. Female employees have a higher level of organisational commitment than male employees. o There is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and salary level. A null hypothesis states that there is no difference between two groups in relation to some variable, or that there is no relationship between two variables. o There is no difference between the organisational commitment of male and female employees. o There is no relationship between job satisfact ion and salary level. A null hypothesis is indicated by H0 whilst the alternative hypothesis is indicated by H1. E. g. H0: There is no relationship between job satisfaction and salary level. H1: There is a positive relationship between job satisfaction and salary level. ? ? ? Formulating the research hypothesis ? Where possible, we should translate the research problem into a research hypothesis that states a relationship between two or more variables in one (or more) population(s). ? Use the following approach to develop a hypothesis: o Discuss the problem, its origin and the objectives in seeking a solution with experts. o Examine data and records concerning the problem for possible trends and clues. Use secondary data. o Interview interested parties and individuals on a limited scale to gain greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem. 5 NOTES ON LITERATURE REVIEW ? ? Literature review is a review of the existing scholarship of available body of knowledge to see how other scholars have investigated the research problem you are interested in. You learn from other authors how they theorised and conceptualised on issues, what they have found empirically, what instrumentation they have used and to what effect. Elements of Literature review ? ? ? Definitions Different theories, models and hypothesis in the field of research Existing data and empirical findings that have been produced by previous research. Measuring instruments (questionnaires, scales and indices) that have been developed to measure the extent or scope of research. Importance of Literature Review ? ? ? ? ? ? ? To ensure one does not merely duplicate a previous study. To discover what the most recent and authoritative theorising about the subject is. To find out what the most widely accepted empirical findings in the field of study are. Researcher can relate those findings to his/her own study. To identify the available instrumentation that has proven validity and reliability. To ascertain what the most widely accepted definitions of key concepts in the field are. Provides important facts and background information about the subject under study. Researcher can get ideas on how to proceed with the investigation. Planning the Literature Search ? ? ? Plan carefully to locate relevant and up-to-date literature. Define the parameters of your search – guided research questions and/or objectives. Generate key words and search terms – this is the most important part of planning your search for literature. Key words are the basic terms that describe your research questions and/or objectives. Discuss your ideas as widely as possible – with experts and peers. ? Compiling a Literature Review ? Integrating the studies o Literature review should not consist of mere compilation of separate, isolated summaries of individual studies of previous researchers. o You should clearly show how these studies relate to one another and how the proposed research ties in with them. Sources of Literature Searches Primary Literature Sources 6 ? ? ? o These are the first occurrence of a piece of work. They include published sources such as reports and some central and local government publications such as economic surveys, UNESCO reports, the Hansard etc. o They also include unpublished manuscripts such as letters, memos and committee minutes that may be analysed as data in their own right. Secondary Sources They include books and journals that constitute the subsequent publications of primary literature. Tertiary Sources o These are designed either to help locate primary and secondary literature or to introduce a topic. o They include indexes and abstracts as well as encyclopaedias and bibliographies. Search using CD-ROM A CD-ROM contains permanent digitally encoded information on a large on a large scale which may represent text, graphics, images or data and can be accessed very quickly. Examples of CD-ROM databases include: o ABI/INFORM – Covers every aspect of business management theory and practice including accounting, computer, human resources, marketing and organisational behaviour. o Anbar – Includes subjects such as accounting and finance, information management and technology, management services and production, marketing and distribution, personnel and training, and top management. ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Use of Internet for example Google Scholar, Science Direct, Elsevier etc. Quotations o With exception of direct quotations, the entire research report should be presented in the author’s own words i. e. without paraphrasing or patching together pieces from other sources. o Use direct quotations sparingly as they are only permitted when something is expressed so eloquently or in such an original way that you feel something will be lost in the process of reformulating it. General guidelines for using quotes in research reports o Incorporate quotations of up to (and not longer than) about 30 words into the text. Enclose the quoted material in double quotation marks. o Apart from the surname of the author and the year of publication, all quotations should also be accompanied by the page number on which the material appears in the quoted source. 7 ? Evaluating the relevance of the literature o How recent is the item? o Is the item likely to be superseded? o Is the context sufficien tly different to make it marginal to your research question(s) and/or objectives? o Have you seen references to this item (or its author) in other items that were useful? Does the item support or contradict your arguments? o Does the item appear to be biased? o What are the methodological omissions within the work? o Is the precision sufficient? ? ? ? ? ? ? The reference system A reference must enable the reader of your research report to locate the information sources referred to if so needed. A reader may want to read more about the issue from the information source. References in the text If you refer to theories, research findings, or any other contribution previously reported, you should give the sources involved due credit. Give the surname(s) of the author(s) followed immediately by the year of publication between parentheses. E. g. In a well-designed experiment, Strauss (1990) found that†¦ Do not list a string of references that are not appropriate in the context in which you cite them. Cite sources after identifying their relevance. It should be clear whether the citation is a finding or an opinion that has been obtained from the source. If a source has more than two authors, you should list them all the first time it appears in the report. E. g. Ojah, Muhanji and Myburg (2008) found that†¦ In all subsequent references only the surname of the first author is provided followed by et al. E. g. Ojah et al (2008) found that†¦ If you refer to the same source more than once in the same paragraph, the date should accompany only the first reference. If there is more than one source with several authors, and they have the first two authors and date in common, give the first three names plus et al in further references to distinguish them. E. g. Smith, Jones, Botha and Tiffin (1990)†¦ 8 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Smith, Jones, De beer and Zwane (1990)†¦ Further references are Smith, Jones and Botha et al (1990)†¦ and Smith, Jones and De Beer et al (1990)†¦ When more than one reference appears between brackets, put a comma between the author(s)’ surname(s) and date, and a semicolon (;) between the different references. E. g. (Jaffe, 1974; Seyhun, 1986; Pope et al, 1990) To distinguish between publications of the same author published in the same year, alphabetise them according to their titles and affix the letters a, b, c and so on onto the dates. E. g. IMF and IDA (2006a), â€Å"Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative – Statistical Update. March 21, 2006. IMF and IDA (2006b), â€Å"Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative – List of RingFenced Countries that meet the Income and Indebtedness Criteria at end 2004. IMF and IDA (2006c), â€Å"Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) Initiative – Issues Related to the Sunset Clause. August 16, 2006. Distinguish between different authors with the same Surname by Providing their Respective Initials Together with their Common Surname. E. g. E. O. Abuya (2010) †¦ N. A. Abuya (2010). References to Institutions are done with Minimum Identification or Description. E. g. (World Bank Economic Report, 2009, p. 20) When a reference is made to a quotation found in a secondary source, it is cited in the text as follows: E. g. (McCallum and Nelson, as quoted by Muhanji, 2010, p. 560) When the date of a publication is unknown, it is cited as follows: According to Ryan and Bernard (n. d. )†¦ Sources in the Reference List Arrange references alphabetically in terms of the surname of the first author. Arrange sources with the same first author but with different co-authors alphabetically according to the surname of the second author. If the same author or collection of authors has different publications, list them chronologically according to the date of publication. When referencing journal articles, the name of the journal appears in italics (or is underlined). When referencing a book, the name of the book appears in italics (or is underlined). For references from an internet source, indicate the URL and the date when the document was accessed. E. g. IMF World Bank. (2006). Applying debt sustainability framework for lowincome countries post debt relief. http://www. imf. org/external/np/pp/eng/2006/110606. pdf. (20/11/2007) 9 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? NOTES ON POPULATION AND SAMPLING ? ? ? ? When we conduct a research, we collect data from our objects of inquiry in order to solve the problem concerned. A crucial element in data collection is the research design that we use. A research design is a plan according to which we obtain research participants (subjects) and collect information from them. In a research design we specify: o The number of groups that should be used (this is necessary to decide which statistical technique to use). o Whether the groups are to be drawn randomly from the population involved and whether they should be assigned randomly to groups. What exactly should be done with them in the case of experimental research. Population and Sample ? ? ? ? ? ? The population is the study object and consists of individuals, groups, organisations, human products and events, or the conditions to which they are exposed. Population encompasses the total collection of all units of analysis about which the researcher wishes t o make specific conclusions e. g. all universities, all banks and so forth. A population is the full set of cases from which a sample is taken. The size of the population is indicated by N. A sample represents a part of the population and is denoted by n. To calculate an appropriate sample, you can use the formula: Where N is the population and Sampling is the level of precision. 1. It is divided into probability and non-probability samples 2. Examples of probability samples includesimple random samples, stratified random samples, systematic samples and cluster samples. 3. Non-probability samples include accidental/incidental samples, quota samples, purposive samples, snowball samples, self-selection samples and convenience samples. 4. In the case of probability sampling, we can determine the probability that any element or member of the population will be included in the sample. In non-probability sampling by contrast, we cannot specify this probability. 5. Advantages of probability sampling is that it enables us to indicate the probability with which sample results (e. g. sample means) deviate from the corresponding population values (e. g. population means). 6. Unlike non-probability sampling, probability sampling enables us to estimate sampling error. Nevertheless, non-probability sampling is frequently used for reasons of convenience and economy. 10 The Sampling Frame ? This is a list of units comprising a population from which a probability sample is selected. E. g. if a sample of students is selected from a student’s roster, the roster is the sampling frame. Likewise, if a sample is selected from a telephone directory, the telephone directory is the sampling frame. In order to compile an appropriate sampling frame, bear in mind the following checklist: o Are the cases listed in the sampling frame relevant to your research topic? o Does the sampl ing frame include all cases i. e. is it complete? o Does the sampling frame exclude irrelevant cases, in other words, is it precise? o Can you establish and control exactly how the sample will be selected (for purchased lists). Sampling Methods Probability Sampling 1. Simple Random Sampling a. Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample and each sample of a particular size has the same probability of being chosen. b. Steps to follow when drawing a random sample include: i. Identify all the units of analysis in the sampling frameand give them cosecutive numbers e. g. 001, 002, 003, and so forth. ii. The mechanism used to choose the unit of analysis should ensure that each member has an equal chance of being selected. This can be done by means of a table of random numbers. 2. Stratified Random Sampling a. Strata are clearly recognisable, non-overlapping subpopulation that differs from one another in terms of a specific variable. Each subpopulation is called a stratum. E. g. male and female, private and public universities etc. b. In order to draw a representative stratified random sample, the following two aspects must be put in mind: i. Identify the various strata according to one or more variables. ii. Draw a random sample from each separate stratum. c. Advantages of stratified random sample include: i. In a random sample from a normal population that is stratified, e. . in terms of gender, the probability of a sample consisting of only one gender is zero. ii. Stratified random sampling requires smaller samples than simple random sampling in order to obtain valid results. 11 3. Systematic Sampling a. Suppose we need to obtain a sample of n members from a population of N elements (units of analysis) that are numbered from 1 to N. In systematic sampling, we include every element (where, is an integer i. e. a whole number). E. g. if one wants to select 10 schools from a population of 100, draw the first element at random and then select every 10th element. If the first element is 8, subsequently select 18, 28, 38, and so on. b. Systematic sampling is more practical baecause it requires less time and is cheaper than random sampling. 4. Cluster Sampling a. In large-scale surveys, it is usually difficult, if not impossible to obtain lists of all the members (units of analysis) of the population. b. In the case of cluster sampling, we first draw (stratify randomly) pre-existing heterogeneous groups called clusters c. Randomly select units of analysis from each cluster. E. g. suppose we wish to conduct a survey on primary schools in Kenya. First draw a sample from the 8 provinces. Then draw a number of districts from each province. Next you draw a number of locations from the district. Finally select a few schools within the location. d. Its disadvantage is that it requires a great deal of time and money to reach one or two individual units in a remote area. If the area is not remote, cluster sampling saves time and money compared to simple random sampling. Summary Sampling Technique Sampling Frame Required Size of Sample Needed Better with a sample size of a few hundred. Suitable for all sizes. Geographical Area Suited Relative Cost Easy to Explain to Support Workers Relatively difficult to explain. Advantages Compared to Simple Random Sampling Simple Random Accurate and easily accessible. Systematic Stratified Random Accurate, easily accessible. And not containing periodic patterns. Actual list not always needed. Accurate, easily accessible, divisible into relevant strata. Concentrated if face-to-face contact required, otherwise does not matter. Concentrated if face-to-face contact required, otherwise does not matter. High if sample size is large or if sampling frame is not computerised. Low Relatively easy to explain. Normally difference. no Suitable for all sizes. Concentrated if face-to-face contact required, otherwise does not matter. Low, provided that lists of relevant strata are available. Relatively difficult to explain. Once strata is decided, it is easy to explain. Better comparison across strata. Differential response rates may necessitate re-weighing. 12 Cluster Accurate, easily accessible, relates to relevant clusters not individual population members. As large as practicable . Dispersed if faceto-face contact is required and geographicallybased clusters are used. Low, provided that lists of relevant clusters are selected. Relatively difficult to explain until clusters are selected. Quick precision reduced. but is Non-Probability Sampling ? ? Advantage of non-probability sample is that they are less complicated and more economical (in times of time and financial expenses) than probability samples. Non-probability samples may be especially useful in pilot studies in which a preliminary form of a questionaire has to be tested. 1. Accidental/incidental Sampling o An accidental sample is the most convenient collection of members of the population (units of analysis) that are real or readily available for research purposes. E. g. people who happen to be at a certain shopping centre at a particular time or organisations that are close to the researcher’s home. 2. Quota Sampling o In this method, the researcher makes an effort to have the same proportions of units of analysis in important strata such as gender, age, and so on as are the population. o Quota sampling yields quite satisfactory results und er the following circumstances: ? One should know the important strata according to which the population is composed and their respective proportions with a reasonable degree of accuracy, or be able to estimate them. One should include enough cases (at least 15, but preferably more than 25) of each stratum in the sample. 3. Purposive Sampling o Researchers rely on their own experience, ingenuity and/or previous research findings to deliberately obtain units of analysis in such a manner that the sample they obtain may be regarded as being representative of the relevant population. o The problem with this kindof sampling is that different researchers may proceed in different ways to obtain a sample. o It is impossible to evaluate the extent to which samples are representative of the relevant population. . Snowball Sampling o First approach a few individuals from the relevant population 13 o These individuals then act as informants and identify other members (e. g. acquaintances or fri ends) from the same population for inclusion in the sample. o The latter may, in turn, identify a further set of relevant individuals so that the sample, like a rolling snowball, grows in size till saturated. 5. Self-Selection Sampling o This occurs when we allow a case, usually an individual, to identify their desire to take part in the research. o The researcher will do the following: ? Publicise the need for cases, either by advertising through appropriate media or by asking them to take part. ? Collect data from those who respond. o Cases that self-select often do so due to their feelings or opinions about the research question(s) or stated objective(s). 6. Convenience Sampling o Convenience or haphazard sampling involves selecting haphazardly those cases that are easiest to obtain for the sample, such as, the person interviewed at random in a shopping centre or airport or university. o The sample selection process is continued until we reach the required sample size. This technique is borne to bias and influences that are beyond control due to the fact that the cases appear in the sample because they were easy to obtain. o Subsequent generalisations are likely to be flawed at best. o Such samples serve best as pilot studies using more structural samples. Sample Style Likelihood of Sample being Representative Very low Type of Research in Which Useful When performi ng explorative research. When you do not expect to generalise findings. Where costs are constrained or data needed very quickly so that an alternative to probability sampling is needed. Where working with very small samples. Focus: unusual or special, key themes, in-depth, importance or case, illustrative, Relative Costs Low Control Sample Contents Low over Accidental (Incidental) Quota Purposive Snowball Self-Selection Convenience Reasonable to high, although dependent on selection of quota variable Low, although dependent on research choices: extreme case, heterogeneous case, homogeneous case, critical case, typical case Low, but cases will have characteristics desired. Low, but cases self selected. Very low Moderately high to reasonable Reasonable Relatively high Reasonable Where difficulties in identifying cases. Where explorative research is needed Where very little variation in population reasonable Low Low Quite low Low Low 14 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN 1. 2. 3. 4. Experimental research Quasi – experimental research Non – experimental research Qualitative research The first three constitute quantitative research. 1. Experimental Research ? This involves some form of intervention, i. e. , the participants (units of analysis) are exposed to something to which they would not have been subjected to. In the hypothesis we express the influence that the independent variable is expected to have on the dependent variable and it is this influence we measure in the experiment. ? We therefore measure the extent to which the intervention (independent variable) has changed or affected the unit of analysis (dependent variable). Measuring the dependent variable Unit of analysis Intervention ? ? ? ? ? The measurement of the dep endent variable before the intervention is called premeasurement and the measurement after the intervention is called postmeasurement. When we work with one group only, the possibility exists that considerable changes in the dependent variable could have occured without the intervention (independent variable). We therefore need a control group that is not exposed to the experimental intervention to which we can compare the group that was exposed to the intervention. A control group therefore is a group that does not receive the intervention, but serves to exercise control over the nuisance variables. A nuisance variable is any variable which is not mentioned in the research hypothesis that may influence the dependent variable. Characteristics of true experimental research a. Control over the independent variable – This means that we may determine which levels of the variable we should use. b. Random assignment of units of analysis to groups i. Different groups are formed by means of random assignment. ii. The term random refers to the way in which the groups are assigned to the different levels of the independent variable. c. Nuisance variables (or third variables) The basic purpose of experimental research is to control nuisance variables to such an extent that the various groups differ only in terms of the levels of the independent variable in question. 5 Ways of controlling the influence of nuisance variables i. Determine the speculative effect of the nuisance variable by doing a proper literature review. In this way, nuisance variables documented in earlier research findings can be identified and controlled. ii. In few cases, it may be possible to eliminate the effect of the nuisance variable co mpletely. iii. Build nuisance variable into the design as an additional independent variable. iv. Purposely form the various groups so that they are as similar as possible in terms of all variables except the independent variable. Causality in the human behavioural sciences. A variable X may be regarded as a cause of another variable Y if each of the following three conditions are met. ? ? ? There must be a correlation between the variables. The cause must precede the effect. The third variable must be controlled. Correlation between variables ? ? ? A correlational association between X and Y exists when Y tends to appear in association with X. E. g. correlation between salary earned and productivity. The existence of a correlational effect does not mean that X causes Y. A correlation between X and Y may be the result of either a mutual relationship or a third variable Z, which may cause both X and Y. E. g. a high positive correlation between number of churches and the incidence of crime. This correlation may be attributed to a third variable, size of the population. A mutual relationship means that one variable (X) plays a role in the occurence of another variable Y which, in turn, affects the former so that there is a mutual relationship between them. From example above, the size of the population has an effect on both the number of churches and the incidence of crime. Cause must precede effect A variable or event X is considered to be a necessary cause of Y if Y cannot occur in the absence of X. E. g. motivation increases productivity. 2. Quasi-experimental Research a. True experimental research is impossible in business and administrative sciences. b. Quasi – experimental research differs from the experimental research in that the research er cannot randomly assign subjects to the different groups. 16 There are two groups of quasi-experimental research: a. The non-equivalent control group design. Here we use two pre-existing groups as an experiment and control group, respectively. i. The threat of group differences that may already have been present prior to the start of the experimental intervention is taken into account by measuring both groups on the dependent variable prior to the experimental observation. ii. If the experimental and control groups do not differ in terms of the premeasure but do differ in terms of the postmeasure, we can ascribe the the difference in the postmeasure to the difference in intervention that they hsve received. Premeasure Experimental group Control group Intervention Postmeasure Experimental group Control group b. The interrupted time-series design i. In this, more than one measurement of the dependent variable is obtained, with equal intervals both before and after the intervention. ii. Researcher may plan the intervention or it may be an unplanned event like collapse of Lehmann brothers. 3. Non-experimental Research a. Neither random assignment nor any planned intervention occurs in nonexperimental research. b. In this type of research one or more variables, apart from the independent variable in question, could be the actual cause of observed variation in the dependent variable. E. g. , knowledge about astronomy has been obtained by non-experimental means because we cannot manipulate the stars. c. Because there is no planned intervention and the data are collected in a field situation, this design is supposed to show the greates similarity to real life. d. Research designs include: survey, non-experimental research designs involving measurements at a single time, longitudinal and opinion polls. 7 VALIDITY OF CONCLUSIONS ? ? We test research hypothesis to help us decide whether or not a specific implication inferred from a theory is tenable, or to provide an answer to a research question. The conclusion we reach about the relationship should be a true reflection of the relationship. E. g. if we wish to investigate whether attitudes have changed over time, a design that selects data at only one point in time would be inappropriate. Validity therefore refers to the extend to which an empirical measure adequately reflects the real meaning of the concept under onsideration. Internal Validity ? ? ? Internal validity describes the degree to which changes in the dependent variable are indeed due to the independent variable rather than to something else. To promote internal validity, it is necessary to eliminate all possible threats to internal validity. If we allow the threats to operate unchecked, we cannot unequivocally interpret observed changes in the dependent variable as the effect of the independent variable, and this will render the internal validity of our conclusions subject. Sources of internal invalidity/ threats to internal validity 1. History – During the cause of the experimental research, historical events may occur that will confound the results. 2. Maturation – People are continually growing and changing, and such changes can affect the results of the experiment. In long-term experiments, people grow older and wiser. In short-term experiments, they may grow tired, hungry, sleepy, bored and/or change in other ways that affect their behaviour in the experiment. 3. Testing – The process of testing and retesting influences people’s behaviour, thereby confounding the experimental results. E. g. , suppose we administer a questionnaire to a group as a way of measuring their prejudice. Then we administer an experimental stimulus and re-measure their prejudice. By the time we conduct the post-test; the subjects may have become more sensitive to the issue of prejudice and will be more thoughtful in their answers. 4. Instrumentation – The process of measurement in pretesting and post-testing brings in some issues of conceptualisation and operationalisation (operationalisation means putting a variable in measurable terms). E. g. if we used different measures of the dependent variable in the pre-test and post-test (e. g. different questionnaires about prejudice), how can we be sure they are comparable to each other. External validity ? ? ? This refers to the possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may be generalizable to the real world. Population validity refers to the degree to which the findings obtained from a sample may be generalised to the t otal population to which the research hypothesis applies. Biased results may be obtained if data are obtained from unrepresentative samples. 8 DATA-COLLECTION METHODS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS IN QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH a. Systematic observation and quantitative measurement Systematic observation means that independent observers other than ourselves should also be able to observe and report whatever we, as researchers, observe and report. b. Measurement theory ? ? ? ? If we wish to investigate the accuracy or â€Å"truth† of the research hypothesis, we need to measure the dependent variables appearing in it. Measuring variables such as length or mass of things or people (subjects) does not present many problems. In human behavioural sciences, the variables we wish to measure are constructs such as liquidation, attitude towards affirmative action, entrepreneurship, helping behaviour etc. We measure these constructs indirectly by means of indicators. E. g. , a variable like socioeconomic status is a construct because there is no single indicator that perfectly encapsulates it. To measure socio-economic status we may use income, occupation, educational level, area in which one resides and so on. The nature measurement ? Measurement involves the assignment of numbers, in terms of fixed rules, to individuals (or objects) to reflect differences between them in some or other characteristic or attribute. The rules in terms of which numbers are assigned constitute an operational definition of the variable being measure e. g. length. In measurement we distinguish between different levels of measurement on the basis of the following characteristics: o Distinguishability (the number 3 is different from the number 2). o Order of rank (2 has a higher rank than 1) o Equal intervals between successively higher numbers . Levels of measurement include nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. i. Nominal measurement ? ? ? ? In this case, the numbers we assign to individuals only serve to distinguish them in terms of the attribute being measured. In this kind of measurement, we place individuals in different, mutually exclusive and exhaustive categories in respect of such characteristics. By mutually exclusive we mean that each person belongs to one of the categories only e. g. male or female. Exhaustive implies that all individuals can be accommodated in some or other category. E. g. we could measure someone’s occupation by assigning the number ? ? 19 1 to doctors, 2 to lawyers, 3 to teachers, 4 to accountants etc. The number 4 does not in any way imply a greater magnitude of the variable occupation. ii. Ordinal measurement ? ? In this case, the numbers we assign not only reflect differences among individuals but also rank order. The assumption is made that those to whom we assign higher numbers exh ibit more of the particular attribute than those to whom we assign lower numbers. E. g. suppose the order of rank of administrative staff in a company is as follows: assistant administrative officer, administrative officer, senior administrative officer. We therefore assign the numbers 1 to 3 as follows: 1 to the rank of assistant administrative officer, 2 to the rank of administrative officer and 3 to the rank of senior administrative officer. iii. Interval measurement ? An interval scale has all the characteristics of both nominal and ordinal scales, but provides additional information regarding the degree of differences between individual data items within a set or group. ? In this measurement, therefore, we use the property of equal differences between consecutively higher numbers. E. g. trust in a company’s future; the question is: This company will make a profit till 2020. Absolutely 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all. iv. Ratio measurement ? ? ? ? Ratio scales represent the highest level of precision. In this, there is fixed and absolute zero point. The ratios between numbers assigned to this level of measurement can therefore be interpreted meaningfully. The advantage of using ratio scales is that any statistical analysis can be use d on data collected in this form. e. g. , Net income from sales for a small scale business. 10000 20000 30000 40000 c. Validity ? Recall that validity is the extent to which the research findings accurately represent what is really happening in the situation. ? Any given measuring instrument measures the construct intended and random measurement error (reliability). 20 ? Types of validity that relate to the independent variable include: construct validity and criterion-related validity. Construct validity ? Construct validity of the operationalisation of an independent variable is the degree to which the procedures intended to produce the independent variable of interest succeed in generating this variable rather than something else. In practice, we seldom investigate the construct validity. ? Usually we clearly describe the way in which such a variable has been operationalised and leave it to the reader to judge whether these operations have succeeded in bringing about the desired independent variable. ? The construct validity of a measuring instrument refers to the degree to which it measures the intended con struct rather than irrelevant constructs or measurement error. ? It is advisable to use more than one measure of the same construct. If this is not done, it is impossible to examine to what extend any given measuring instrument measures anything else but itself. ? An important threat to the construct validity of questionnaire measurements of personality, interests, and attitudes lies in measurement reactivity. ? The response sets of faking and social desirability and the response style of acquiescence imply that individuals’ responses are not true reflections of their personalities, interests, and attitudes. ? Faking means that participants deliberately distort their responses in order to create a desired impression. E. g. question like do you easily lose your temper? A respondent will answer negatively because he wishes o create a good impression. ? In social desirability, subjects deliberately or inadvertently provide the responses that they believe to be socially accepted. E. g. a question like do you like everybody you know? Respondents may answer positively because they believe that it would be sociall y unacceptable not to like some people. ? Acquiescence refers to the phenomenon where research participants tend to consistently answer â€Å"yes† (to no/yes items) or â€Å"true† (rather than false), irrespective of the content of the question. E. g. an interviewee may answer â€Å"yes† to both of the following statements: I prefer to spend a night out in town with friends instead of staying at home reading a book. I prefer a quiet night at home reading a book instead of partying with friends. Answering yes to both questions is contradictory. Criterion-Related Validity ? This refers to the degree to which diagnostic and selection measurement/tests correctly predict the relevant criterion. 21 ? ? The relevant criterion refers to the variable that is to be diagnosed or on which success is to be predicted respectively. E. g. he validity of university exams is shown in their ability to predict students’ success in university. d. Reliability ? ? ? This is concerned with the findings of the research and relates to the credibility of the findings. In determining whether our findings are reliable, we need to ask the following question: will the evidence and conclusions stand up to the closest scrutiny? It stands to re ason that if we measure a construct (e. g. small business success) by means of a particular instrument (e. g. taxable profit), comparable measurements should be obtained for the same individual/objects irrespective of, e. . , when the instrument is administered, which particular version of it is used, and who is applying or administering it. Reliability therefore refers to the extent to which the obtained scores may be generalised to different measuring occasions, measurement/test forms and measurement/test administrators. Generalisation refers to the consistency of the ranking (of scores) that we assign to the individuals or objects, irrespective of when the measuring instrument was applied, which form it was used, and by whom it was administered. Scores that are assigned to individuals should therefore be consistent irrespective of the time of measurement, the test used, and the person administering the test. ? ? ? Estimating reliability ? If a research finding can be repeated, it is reliable. In other words, if anyone else were to repeat the research, they should be able to obtain the same results as those obtained originally. E. g. , if we find that a group of workers who attended a training course doubled their previous productivity levels, and another researcher obtained similar results, the measurements are reliable. Repeating a research study in order to establish reliability is known as replication. Test-retest reliability ? To determine test-retest reliability of a measuring instrument, we should administer it on at least two occasions to the same large, representative sample from the population for which the instrument is intended. We then correlate the two sets of scores obtained in this way and calculate a correlation coefficient for the two sets of data. This coefficient is an index of reliability. 22 ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? The time interval between the two administrations should not be too long to prevent real and permanent changes from taking place in the attribute being measured. At the same time, it should not be too short so that participants may remember the responses given on the first administration. A disadvantage of this method is that it is often difficult to persuade respondents to answer questions a second time. Furthermore, if they do answer the questions a second time, they may think more deeply about the questions on the second occasion and provide different answers. Parallel-forms reliability ? Parallel-form reliability of a measurement test is determined by using interchangeable versions of a measurement/test that have been compiled to measure the same construct equally well but by means of different content. The different versions are administered to the same representative sample and the obtained scores are correlated. Parallel-forms reliability deals with the generalisability over parallel measurement/test forms. ? ? Internal consistency ? ? A high internal consistency implies a high degree of generalisability across the items within the measurement test. In other words, if a person performs well on a few items in such a measurement/test, the chances are good that he/she will fare equally well on the remaining items in the measurement/test. Every item is correlated with every other item across the entire sample and the average inter-item correlation is taken as the index of reliability. To determine the reliability of a measuring instrument by using the internal consistency method, we administer the measurement/test only once to a large representative sample. It is important to note that the longer a measurement/test is, in other words, the more appropriate content it covers, the higher its internal consistency should be. ? ? ? Split-halves reliability ? ? This is calculated by correlating the scores on one half of the test with the scores for the other half of the test. The test is therefore divided into equal halves which are the correlated in terms of the scores for each half. 23 ? The correlation coefficient for the two halves is then calculated and indicates the reliability of the test. In conclusion, a good measurement technique should be both valid (measuring what it is intended to measure) and reliable (yielding a given measurement dependability). Reliable but not valid Valid and not reliable Valid and reliable Pilot Studies in the development of a questionnaire ? ? When a new measuring instrument is developed, it is useful to â€Å"test it out† before administering it to the actual sample. The process of â€Å"testing out† is done by means of a pilot study which entails administering the instrument to a limited number of subjects from the same population as that for which the eventual project is intended. The pilot study is therefore a â€Å"dress rehearsal† for which the eventual project is intended. ? Purpose of a pilot study ? To detect possible flaws in the measurement procedures such as ambiguous instructions, adequate time limits as well as in the operationalisation of the independent variables. E. g. , you may have to use a range of income instead of a fixed numerical value. To identify unclear or ambiguously formulated items. In such a pilot study, the actual questions are put to the respondents, and they are then asked to indicate how they have interpreted the formulated questions. An opportunity for researchers and assistants to notice non-verbal behaviour on the part of the participants that may possibly signify discomfort or embarrassment about the content or wording of the questions. NB: it is virtually mandatory to test survey questionnaires on a small group of individuals who are representative of the populations for which they are intended. If the instrument is extensively revised in reaction to the results of the pilot study, the revised instrument should be subjected to a new round of testing. ? ? 24 Measuring instruments ? ? ? Sources of data include primary data and secondary data. Primary data are original data collected by the researcher for the purposes of his/her own study at hand. Secondary data are information collected by individual or agencies and institutions other than the researcher him – or herself. Types of measuring instruments 1. Survey questionnaires, standardised measuring instruments and attitude scales. These do not involve direct observations of the behaviour of subjects but, instead, individuals’ reports of their behaviour. These measuring instruments are therefore susceptible to measurement reactivity (like withholding of co-operation to deliberate deception). 2. Rating scales which require raters to assess the behaviour of participants. Bias on the part of the raters can invalidate such information. 3. Indicators such as the inflation rate, CPI, retail sales, registered unemployed, FDI, etc. These are compiled and calculated by people such as government officers. The information (figures) is published in reports, manuals, databases, etc. Unobtrusive measurement ? ? ? This occurs when a subject’s behaviour is observed and the participant is unaware that measurement is taking place. The researcher can observe through either one-way mirror, hidden cameras or behave like a detective. The problem of measurement reactivity is completely eliminated. Group contacts Advantages of collecting data from groups of people 1. Captive audiences such as students or prisoners, the elderly in a home for the aged etc are available to work with. This procedure then corresponds to the administration of a group measurement/test. 2. Since a single person (with possibly a few assistants) is required to provide the instructions in one room or hall, the cost per questionnaire (in the case of surveys) is much lower than that of a personal interview. 3. The researcher is in full control of the completion of the questionnaires. The session is arranged with the permission of the appropriate authorities (e. g. schools, university etc) so that no respondent has an excuse for not completing the questionnaire. Response rate is close to 100%. 4. Since the researcher and his/her assistants are present, queries about the completion of survey questionnaires may be answered immediately. 25 5. The group contact way of administering questionnaires corresponds to the personal interview as far as the presence of the interviewer is concerned, but it allows for the same degree of anonymity as the typical postal survey. ? ? The disadvantage of this method is that it is limited to a few populations. Categories of group contacts include: survey questionnaires and postal dispatch, standardised tests, attitude scales, and rating scales and situational tests. Survey questionnaire and postal dispatch ? Survey questionnaires are used to obtain the following types of information from respondents: ? Biographical details e. g. age, educational qualifications, income etc. ? Typical behaviour e. g. the television programme they favour. ? Opinion, beliefs and convictions about any topic or issue e. g. the present political state. ? Attitudes e. g. towards affirmative action. An example of a survey questionnaire is: The leadership in my organisation at the present time is: Hardworking ? ? 1 2 3 4 5 Lazy ? ? ? ? ? Attitudes should preferably be assessed by means of attitude scales rather than survey questionnaires. Whereas attitude scales are completed by the respondents typically under the supervision of research staff, we can obtain information about biographical particulars, typical behaviour, opinions, and beliefs in persons, by telephone, mail or email. When compiling the questionnaire, we should take the eyesight and the literacy level of the intended respondents into consideration. Not only should the intended respondent be able to read and write, but they should also be able to follow instructions. Ignorant respondents may find complicated filter questions, which involves different routes for responses confusing. The purpose of filter questions is to determine whether her respondents should answer all subsequent questions or whether they can omit some of them. Unlike personal interview and telephonic interviews, the respondents cannot fall back on anybody else but themselves since the interviewer is not available to direct them around irrelevant questions. Conducting a typical postal or mail survey involves the following two stages: ? We first assemble the questions asking for information about biographical particulars, typical behaviour or opinion and beliefs that we want to put to the respondents in a structured questionnaire. 26 ? We then post the questionnaire to respondents with the request that they be completed and returned by mail or fax. Advantages of postal surveys 1. Cost and ease of application A postal survey is the least expensive of all survey methods. Irrespective of how far and wide the respondents are scattered across the country, they can all be reached by means of a relatively low postal cost. 2. Anonymity Postal survey provides the greatest possibility of anonymity, i. e. , no name or identification is given. Disadvantages 1. Control over responding The researcher has least control over the conditions under which postal questionnaires are completed. The chances are great that some questions may be omitted or not be respondent to in the order presented, or someone else may complete the questions. 2. Response rate Researchers lack control over the completion of the questionnaires. It may result not only in poorly completed questionnaires, but also a poor response rate. Postal survey response rates frequently fall below 50% of the target population. To improve the response rate of postal surveys, the questionnaire may be: ? ? ? ? Delivered in person to the respondents’ addresses with a request that they be posted back on completion. Posted and collected personally. Both delivered and collected personally. Questionnaires can be followed up by letters and postcards reminding the respondents to complete and return them. Standardised tests ? A standardised test is a collection of tasks in which the content, the administration and the scoring of the obtained responses are the same, irrespective of who is administering it and by whom it is scored. Standardised tests take the form of individual test and group tests. Individual test may only be administered individually, in other words, a test administrator can administer it to only one testee at a time. Group test may be administered to more than one individual simultaneously in one session. Types of tests include aptitude tests (which include intelligence tests), academic achievement tests, personality tests, and interest tests. 27 ? ? ? ? Attitude scales ? ? An attitude is a disposition towards a particular issue, the so called attitudinal object. Attitudinal object may refer to: o A political, economical, or social issue (e. g. , tax on wealth creation, the death penalty etc). o A custom (e. g. , female genital mutilation). o A group (e. g. , UASU, KNUT) The following is an example of an attitude scale: ? An attitudinal scale to test the efficiency of a bus company (e. g. Easy Coach) Strongly agree 1 1 1 1 Agree 2 2 2 2 Agree in some cases 3 3 3 3 Do not agree 4 4 4 4 Strongly disagree 5 5 5 5 Buses are on time Drivers are reckless Fares are too high Service is regular ? Note: researchers as a rule have to compile their own attitude scales to measure the attitudes relevant to their research. Types of attitude scales 1. 2. 3. 4. Likert scale or summated scale Semantic differential The Guttman scale The Thurstone scale These attitude scales are based on different assumptions about the relationship between individuals, their attitudes, and their responses to the items. The summated or Likert scale ? ? ? This is the most popular type of scale in social sciences. Its popularity stems from the fact that it is easier to compile than any of the other attitude scales (more particularly, Guttman and Thurstone). In Likert scale, subjects have to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with its content on, for instance, a five-point scale (e. g. , strongly differ, differ, undecided, agree, strongly agree). Some statements represent a positive attitude whereas others reflect a negative attitude. e. g. , taxing MPs is nothing less than killing them Taxing MPs is essential for government revenue An attitude scale should contain approximately the same number of positively and negatively formulated items to counteract the acquiescent response style. 28 ? ? The semantic differential ? Each item in a semantic differ How to cite Research Methods, Essays